Ernest的碩士研究 - 佛法現代應用 A Study of the Application of theBuddha-Dharma in the Contemporary Context

Mission Statement

The Buddha-Dharma, as the Buddha taught, was about suffering and the cessation of suffering. As we live in this world, we will inevitably experience some kind of sufferings during our lifetime. Although many of us feel that the modern world is much complicated than before, it is hard to compare or conclude as the conditions in each era are different. As the outside world requires collaborative effort by the human race and a lot of conditions are out of our control, by learning and practising the Buddha-Dharma, we can change the way we perceive the world, and ceases suffering as the Buddha taught.

Facing some sufferings in life, including cancer and its relapse, business collapse, and breaking up with my loved one, I discovered that many problems in life share the same characteristics. They seem to be hard and causes sufferings at first, but as time passes, they turn out to be good lessons if we go inward, learn from the experiences and transform. Before learning the Buddha-Dharma, I have benefited from mindfulness and yoga practices including yogic philosophy, which gradually lead me on the path of learning Buddhist studies. My illness during matriculation and undergraduate studies lead me to think about death, and to seek the true meaning and essence of life.

Therefore I decided to study more about topics about counselling and pastoral practice, death, meditation, and study how the Buddha-Dharma can be applied in the contemporary context, so that we can know how to apply them in everyday life in the modern world, including the time when we are near our death of this lifespan. In this portfolio, I have included four chapters: (i) The contemporary usage of Buddha-Dharma to support a loved one in a difficult time; (ii) The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta and its influence on the development of mindfulness movement in the West; (iii) How can we transform anger into tolerance or patience?; (iv) Dissolution of the subtle energies in the death and dying processes.

These chapters serve to explain some of my understandings and usage of the Buddha-Dharma in the modern context, including teachings from Early Buddhism, Mahāyāna Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, and the non-Buddhist mindfulness developments in the West. The topics included are specially chosen because I think they are important for everyone, as we may inevitably come across during our lifetime. By studying different schools of Buddhism and mindfulness movement in the West, I hope to deliver a clear picture of the applications of the Buddha-Dharma, as all these teachings root from teachings of the historical Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama.

The first chapter is the core of this portfolio, which is an application of how to expound the Buddha-Dharma to a loved one during a difficult time. I recall the days during my sickness, I was depressed and worried about death. In the chapter, I tried to use the Buddha-Dharma as a tool to address a friend, named Edwin, with a similar circumstances. It serves as a study on how the Buddha-Dharma can be used and expounded for someone in a difficult time. Otherwise if we just share the Buddha-Dharma right away, our loved ones who may be in serious physical or mental problems may not be able to understand or accept it. We need to be well-prepared and have empathy, and not just deliver what we think is good. 

The second chapter is a study of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta and its influence on the development of mindfulness movement in the West. I have investigated and explained that the destination of Buddhist practice is the realization of nibbāna, and studied the pros and cons of such influence of the mindfulness movement, especially there is a discrepancy between its method of practice and its goals with the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta. Before studying the Buddha-Dharma, I have practiced mindfulness and felt that it lacks further guidance for advanced practitioners, and I hope this chapter can give insight to mindfulness practitioners on whether they should study the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta. This chapter supplements the first chapter in elaborating the importance of  prajñā (wisdom), rather than only developing dhyāna (meditation), as without  the prajñā in Buddha-Dharma, one may not be able to develop right view which solves the worldly problems one is facing and ultimately lead to realization of nibbāna.

The third chapter is about transforming anger into tolerance, which is very important to me as I would easily be angry in the past. This is also a phenomena in the world as we can see in the society or international affairs. After these years of mindfulness practice and learning the Buddha-Dharma, I see my progress of transformation, from not reacting with anger, to really being compassionate with the other person and not being angry from the bottom of my heart, and thinking if I can help that person in some ways. I believe that without proper instructions of the Buddha-Dharma, it is very hard for one to transform this way. This chapter explains the causes of anger and proposes meditation as a way to transform anger into tolerance. Similarly, this reinforces the first chapter in that everything can be transformed with proper understanding and practice of the Buddha-Dharma.

The fourth chapter is about the dissolution of the subtle energies in the dying process. As we will inevitably undergo this process during the end of our current lifespan, we should study and be well-prepared for it. During my time of cancer treatments, I have observed the changes of myself and other patients in the hospital and noted that the four elements and subtle energies change after each treatment and near the time of death, which I later found more hints in the Tibetan Book of Death. Although we may not practice and prepare for death like some of the serious Tibetan practitioners, it is good to understand so that when we or our loved ones undergo the process, we will know that it is natural to have different feelings because of the dissolution of subtle energies.

We can then take care of ourselves, our loved ones, have less fear and be more peaceful in mind, as it will affect our next rebirth. The ultimate understanding is to practice the Buddha-Dharma seriously, and take care of our thoughts and actions, so that we will have a smooth dying process which leads to a better rebirth. Also, through understanding of the four elements, we can reduce everything into these four elements, and be mindful of them using the method as taught in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta as explained in the second chapter. With this understanding and hence the understanding of impermanence of the body, we can use the same contemplation in every circumstances. These serve to supplement the core of the portfolio, Chapter I, as understanding and being mindful of the four elements can bring fearlessness.

The limitation of this portfolio is the part about sīla (discipline), as the contemporary world generally advocates freedom, so it is more challenging to expound this part. Although this is very important in the Buddha-Dharma, I am sure readers will go on to seek for these teachings when they are benefited from practising meditation and developing wisdom. Eventually we will be able to wipe out desire, anger, stupidity, and become enlightened.

As the Buddha advised as recorded in the Kesamutti Sutta, it is proper for us to remain uncertain and doubtful of all teachings, no matter who proposed or taught until we find out that they lead to benefit and happiness. This portfolio was prepared in the same ideology and I hope readers will comprehend and practice accordingly.

Chapter IThe contemporary usage of Buddha-Dharma to support a loved one in a difficult time

1. Buddha-Dharma is a choice to support a loved one in a difficult time

Just as there are sunny days and rainy days, it is normal for us to have a good time and a difficult time, as it is just a change of causes and conditions. However, when we encounter difficult circumstances, we may not be able to accept the reality and feel stressed, hopeless, sad, etc.. This is especially true on circumstances that greatly affect our daily life or associated with the future, as an untrained person tends to grasp things and thinks that they are permanent.

A lot of us knows that the Buddha-Dharma advocates “to abandon suffering and obtain happiness”, however there are many who suffer in difficult times. The Buddha-Dharma has been developed into different therapeutic interventions, which have been effective in helping psychological problems (Sik and Yim 2021, 305-311).

In the following, we will introduce the Buddha-Dharma, whether it is a choice to support our loved one during a difficult time, the relevant teachings, and the method of expounding the Buddha-Dharma.

To limit the scope of discussion, the following discussion will be mainly for a good friend, a college student named Edwin, who is receiving treatments for cancer recurrence, and is so stressful and fearful about the effectiveness of treatments, and the possibility of death if treatments fail again. He is being isolated from most friends because treatments make him weak and easily infected.

2. The essence of Buddha-Dharma

The core of the Buddha-Dharma, or what the Buddha taught, was about suffering (dukkah) and the path that leads to the cessation of suffering (SN 56.31). It was also made known as the Four Noble Truths: suffering, arising of suffering, cessation of suffering, and the path that ends suffering (AN 3.61). The suffering mentioned above, mainly deals with mental suffering, which will be further elaborated.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, suffering is generalized into eight kinds: birth, old age, sickness, death, parting from loved ones, being stuck with the hateful, unattained aims, all the sufferings as a “self”. These suffering are objective, which are events that will happen in the course of our lives.

In fact, it is the subjectivity of our mind that causes mental suffering. In the parable of second arrow (SN 36.6), the Buddha used two arrows to illustrate the bodily feeling and the mental feeling when one is being shot the two arrows. The first arrow, representing the physical pain, also represents the circumstances we face, which are inescapable and objective; while the second arrow, representing the mental pain caused by the first arrow, represents the conceptual proliferation that our mind subjectively reacts to the first arrow. The second arrow is optional.

The other core teaching is the Law of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda). The essence is as follows: If this arises, that arises; if this ceases, that ceases (SN 12.37). Everything arises because of its causes and conditions, and ceases when its causes and conditions are gone. Therefore, nothing is permanent or real, but is just a result of its coming together and dissipating of its causes and conditions, therefore it is temporary and empty in nature. Impermanence (anicca) is the true nature of all phenomena, as everything is subject to changes when its causes and conditions change.

The twelve-linked chain of causation further illustrates the significance (SN 12.1). With ignorance as condition, aging-and-death, grief, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair must come to be. These are the origin of all suffering. Conversely, without ignorance as condition, these will all cease.

As we can see, suffering is optional, as after learning the Buddha-Dharma, our mind can be updated. Without ignorance, all the other suffering will cease. All suffering exists because of misunderstanding of how things actually are. If we see things as they truly are, we see the emptiness nature in all phenomenon, and understand all phenomenon are just manifestations of causes and conditions, then we can work on it realistically with hope.

By the above understanding, one can also come to the conclusion of not-self (anattā), which forms the three marks of existence, together with suffering and impermanence. We should understand that our life, our “Self”, or whatever that we perceive as “I”, is not permanent, as it is also dependent arisen, according to the Law of Dependent Origination. As a matter of fact, what we are today, is different from that of yesterday, and a lot more different than ten years ago. With this understanding, we will know cling to the perception of “I” as much as we normally would, which causes a lot of suffering. This is very important in understanding suffering as the Buddha pointed out:

“What is impermanent, that is suffering; what is suffering, that is not-self.”  (SN 22.15)

However, as one understands the above, it will merely be an understanding on concepts. The Buddha has taught that for our mind to be free from clinging, we need to develop our progress in meditation (AN 7.71). From the implications of the Diamond Sutra, this can further been identified as three steps: prajñā of language, prajñā of contemplation, and prajñā of actuality. The Buddha-Dhamma, as the Buddha has suggested, must be applied personally through meditative development, so that our mind can be freed from clinging (AN 7.71). For one to be truly free suffering, one must practice meditation.

3. Understanding the needs of Edwin and some preparation

As we are supporting our loved one, Edwin, we should remember he is our friend and treat him genuinely, and not treating him like one in need. We should show empathic recognition to him, by putting ourselves into Edwin’s shoe, and try to understand his situation and needs from his point of view. According to McLaren (2013, 35-37), there are six aspects of empathy and most of them are intentional, so we will need to develop and practice the skills of being empathy, or at least be aware of it. For example, ons of the six is “Perspective Taking”, after Edwin shares his concerns, we can use our own words to restate, to show that we understand their problem through his eyes, and if anything was misunderstood, Edwin can express his views freely again. This is important in fostering a sense of safety, and can advance conversation from a state of ambiguity to a reflection state (Elliott, Robert, et al., 2011, 6). This is important, in all stages but especially in the beginning, to build rapport so that Edwin can share more of his difficulties with us. Edwin, facing difficulties, may not be able to have a clear picture of what he is facing. Kohut (2009, 16) suggested that empathic attunements can bring in-depth understandings of one’s inner life. With empathy, we can understand more what Edwin really need, intrinsically.

As we are a friend of Edwin and he is not our client, it is also important that we share our own stories too, and maintain the type of conversation we usually had. Edwin may not want to focus on his sickness or related issues all the time, as this may fall into the trap of being sympathy, as Yegdich (1999, 86) noted that it was historically confused by some scholars too. Instead, he may want to know about our everyday stories and difficulties as well. Of course this requires us to be attenuate during the discussion and decide accordingly.  By treating Edwin as our friend, he can also maintain his esteem and do not feel that he is the one being helped. He may also share more about his concerns and difficulties, so we can understand more about what his mind is really undergoing. This was shared by Albom in the memoir for Professor Morrie when he was in his last days:

“He told his friends that if they really wanted to help him, they would treat  him not with empathy but with...the way they had always shared their  problems.” (Albom 1997, 5)

Apart from what is being said, non-verbal behaviour plays a significant role too. Prior research suggested that a message is 7% verbal, 38% vocal and 55% facial (Mehrabian & Ferris 1967, 109; Mehrabian & Wiener 1967, 248). Non-verbal messages are also important in building rapport, and positivity and attentiveness are very important especially in the early interactions (Tickle-Degnen & Rosenthal 1990, 285-288). These body language includes maintaining sufficient eye-contact, but not at all time or staring, to allow space for Edwin. We should also maintain an appropriate angle of eye-level, if Edwin is on bed, we should sit down and not look at him from a very high level, as he might feel isolated. We can hold his hand, offer him hugs, to show our companionship during conversations.

Also, we should approach Edwin without our own agenda of making things better, rather we should just be their companion, offering help and share with them. What is relevant, depend greatly on the situation of the one in need. Therefore it is important for us to be non-judgemental at all times. This may be hard, but by understanding the doctrine of no-self, we should not try to control the agenda, as it might just be ways to construct our own “self”. For example, we can approach the friend and try to accomplish some tasks with him, like going to hospital for treatments, reading some books together or anything that is on his agenda, in order to be of companionship with him.

We should also practice meditation before meeting Edwin. If our mind is in chaos, our actions and speech may not be as good when we are mindful. Of course, this greatly depends on our daily practice and understanding of the Buddha-Dharma, but it will be good anyway to have some mindfulness practices before the meeting.

4. The Buddha-Dhamma as mental medicine

If Edwin is positive in communicating and we can freely share our thoughts, as students of Buddhist studies, we can ask if Edwin is willing to learn about the Dharma, as a tool to ease or solve his mental difficulties. Of course it would be even better if Edwin initiated this during the conversation. As Edwin is already experiencing suffering, he knows well about the first Noble Truth, and ‘sickness’ in the categorization of the eight sufferings in Mahāyāna Buddhism. As he is doubtful about the effectiveness of treatments and fear of death, it may be a good choice to directly explain the Law of Dependent Origin:

“If this arises, that arises; if this ceases, that ceases.”   (SN 12.37)

At first, we can use some examples that may be easier to understand for a teenager. For example, with sufficient revision prior to exam, together with adequate rest, a healthy body, nutritious food, one may be able to perform good. Of course there are some uncontrollable conditions, like the difficulty of the exam, good weather, a safe route to school. Likewise, without any of the conditions listed above, for example, with all the other conditions there but without sufficient revision before exam, it is impossible to achieve good results at all. The Law of Dependent Origination implicates that everything in this world is relative interdependent and conditioned (Rahula 1959, 52-53).

After Edwin understand the Law, we can try to discuss about the circumstances he is facing. His stress and fear are the results of coming together of different conditions too. This may include the reality of cancer relapse, the ambiguity of the effects of treatments, not knowing how it might be after death. With any of these conditions being removed, stress and fear may vanish too. Therefore, it is important to learn about these factors that make other things arise.

I will also invite him to practice meditation together. Kabat-Zinn (2013, 105) suggested that when our lives are driven by doing, practising meditation formally can enable us a shelter of saneness and stability, which can restore our balance and perspective. I would invite Edwin to meditate and observe the factors that give rise to his own suffering. This can be done by continuously drawing his attention back, rather than focusing on random thoughts. By practising meditation, Edwin can be more mindful and aware of different thoughts and perspectives that arise, which cause him to be fearful and stressful. As Kabat-Zinn (2013, 371) also suggests, with meditation practices, we can have a real choice and respond with greater awareness to the situation, with a wider perspective.

If Edwin is willing to share, I will invite him to share his insight after meditation. I will invite him to share whatever he wants to, any difficulties he encounters, and try to paraphrase them, as we discussed in the previous session. This can draw conclusions of what is really the real causes of stress and fear. I would invite Edwin to do meditation practice daily, and meet him again after a week. Research had shown that after meditation, most subjects have significant improvement in reducing anxiety and depression levels, which can be maintained at a 3-month follow up (Peterson & Pbert 1992, 940).

For the second visit, I will try to understand his needs again like last time, and encourage him to share his views, and insight or experiences from meditation. If his conditions and feedback are good, I will share the parable of the two arrows to him. It is important that we identify what is factual and unchangeable. Sickness, and a possibility of death is unchangeable fact at the moment, but how to we respond to them, is optional. Anālayo (2003, 228-229) suggested that according to Buddhist teaching, it is the conditioned nature of the perceptual process, that stimulates conceptual proliferation. Therefore we need to train ourselves to be free from this habitual response.

With insight from the Law of Dependent Origination, we can work hard on the conditions, which bring better outcome in the future. For example, if Edwin eats more healthy food, and exercise a bit, he has a healthier body and hence a better chance of recovery; and if he gives up and lies on bed every day, his body will deteriorate and it is harder for the body to recover from the therapies, which is a hurdle for forthcoming treatments. Therefore, the implications of the Law of Dependent Origination, is that we can manifest anything by changing its causes and conditions, because nothing is permanent. Everything is impermanent because it is just a constant flow of the combination of different causes and conditions. Therefore all the difficulties Edwin is facing, including sickness, fearfulness; are all temporary and impermanent. Once the causes and conditions change, it will cease and we can work hard for this cessation to arrive. With a wholesome mind, we can manifest the world as the gatha in Avataṃsakasūtra explains:

“Mind is like an artist, able to paint the worlds...” (Cleary 1993, 452)

As we learn the Buddha-Dharma, our mind can be updated. Once this is achieved, our actions will change too. However, this can only be done via contemplative meditation. Understanding without contemplating is only the textbook knowledge, and very hard to be applied into the reality. This is the prajñā of language as we discussed. As de Silva (2014, 39) suggested, meditation practices will enable us to gradually identify the traps in the mundane life.

Therefore, I will encourage Edwin to understand and remember meaning of the Buddha-Dharma, and choose a gatha that he likes, and contemplate on its implication during meditation. By continuously contemplating, he can really apply the Buddha-Dharma to his unique situation, and become his own prajñā. The importance of meditation, especially the importance of contemplating, was pointed out by the Buddha in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta (MN 10), and Bodhi (2011, 21) suggested that this sutra is the most influential text on these systematic practice of mindfulness:

“This is the only way for the purification of beings, ...contemplating the  Dhamma in the dhammas, ardently, clearly comprehending and mindful,  removing covetousness and grief in the world.”  (Walshe 1995, 335)

At last I would explain the twelve-linked chain of causation and the three marks of existence. These are expanded understanding of the Law of Dependent Origination. The twelve-linked chain of causation explains the root causes of suffering is ignorance. With ignorance, all the other eleven linked origins of suffering arise accordingly. However, as Edwin is already endowed with insight in Buddha-Dhamma, he is no longer ignorant, and suffering is optional for him. As he already understands suffering and impermanence, the doctrine of not-self can be shared, as he is so fearful of death. If he understands and accepts that “self” is also dependent originated, and subject to decay, sickness; while we can only accept these natural phenomenon, we can still work hard to sustain the healthiness of our body, or in Edwin’s case, work for a speedy recovery. Fearfulness of death is actually a good opportunity for us to realize that our life is not permanent and every day is a gift, and we should treasure and make good use of it. Although everything including our body will be eventually gone, everything we do will leave marks in this world and in our foundational consciousness (ālayavijñāna).

I will continue to see Edwin and meditate with him weekly, encourage him to meditate regularly, and replicate the above procedures and exchange insight about the Buddha-Dharma whenever he is interested, as we should always take care of his needs first, as it too will change over time. We should remember that he is our loved friend and respect his needs.

5. Edwin is then free from most mental suffering

Edwin is a loved one in my heart, which is constructed from my personal situation some 13 years ago. Without a loved friend with prajñā in Buddha-Dharma, days were difficult back then. Recalling a lot of situation when friends and relatives showing sympathy or trying to make things better as they thought as beneficial, it was really making the difficult time more difficult, as what is good is very subjective and perhaps we cannot never truly understand what others want.

On the quest to battle the fear of cancer relapse and death, the Buddha-Dharma has been very effective to overcome mental proliferations, as the fear lasted for an extended period of time, and did not dissipate just because of the passing of time. Combining some skills in counselling and the relevant Buddha-Dhamma listed in this chapter, I think it would be a very effective mental medicine for one who is suffering, especially with the severe illness that destructs every worldly identities and may even lead to death. The above was what I thought was useful for Edwin during the decade of fearfulness, with a combination of recent consolidation of knowledge in Buddha-Dhamma and counselling.

I hope that the Buddha-Dharma can be shared to more people who are in a difficult time, so that all of us can be free from suffering.

Chapter II

The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta and its influence on the development of mindfulness movement in the West

1. An overview of the development of mindfulness movement

Since Jon Kabat-Zinn introduced the Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program in 1979, mindfulness has been more and more popular in the West, and more Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) emerged. Initially, MBSR was developed for patients to reduce pain and stress. As it was proven to be effective, it was introduced by hospitals and clinics all over the world.

Kabat-Zinn (1994, 14-15) defined mindfulness as paying attention in a particular way on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally. He also acknowledged that mindfulness is an ancient Buddhist act which is relevant to our everyday lives. Bodhi (2011, 19) suggested that the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, the “Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness”, is the most influential text on these systematic practice of mindfulness.

In the following we will discuss how the text influenced the development of mindfulness development in the West.

2. The teachings of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta

In the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, the Buddha delivered the discourse on the “Four Foundations of Mindfulness”:

“This is the only way for the purification of beings, for the overcoming of   sorrow and lamentation, for the disappearance of pain and grief, for reaching  the Noble Path, for the realization of nibbāna. What are the four? Here, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu dwells contemplating the body in the body ... contemplating feelings in the feelings ... contemplating consciousness in the  consciousness ... and contemplating the Dhamma in the dhammas, ardently,  clearly comprehending and mindful, removing covetousness and grief in the  world.”

First, the Buddha specifically taught to contemplate the body in the body, but not just the body itself, nor just “non-judgmentally in the present moment”. This has a deeper meaning as to identify the components that make up of the body, feelings, conciousness, or the dharmas. As one practice and see things as they truly are, eventually one will find they are empty in nature. For example, the body intrinsically depends on its body parts to function, and therefore it is subject to change and impermanent in nature. This deeper understanding is profound and in line with the Doctrine of Dependent Origination, and removes one’s clinging to the five aggregates.

Second, the Buddha mentioned “this is the only way”, which is almost exclusively as an attribute of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (Anālayo 2003, 15). This makes the practice of the four foundations of mindfulness special from other practices, and although it can remove pain and grief from one’s cognition, its ultimate goal is for the realization of nibbāna. In fact, this sutta has great importance and has never been lost in the Theravāda tradition, and large numbers of monk can recite it (Thera 1994). This shows the significance and the monks have been practising continuously since the Buddha taught.

Third, the Buddha taught to “ardently,  clearly comprehending and mindful, removing covetousness and grief in the  world.” This enthusiasm, clear comprehension and mindfulness, is very important for one to constantly pay attention and observe the meditation objects in the right way. It is better for one to have initial faith in the Buddha’s teaching, by understanding dukkah and the Four Noble Truth, otherwise one may have no initiative to practice ardently, and merely practice to eliminate pain. The more effort we pay, the more we receive, and this is a necessary condition to achieve in our practice.

The whole sutra used the same format and is a systematic training - whatever meditation object one contemplates mindfully, one will be purified of. In the last part of the sutra which is not quoted above, the Buddha assured that whoever practiced for seven years, and at last reduced to seven days, may expect two results. One is the highest knowledge here and now, the another is for those who still remains to clinging, the state of non-returner. This assurance is very symbolic that if one practice accordingly, they are guaranteed with the two results, and more importantly, pointing the importance of letting go of the attachments or clinging to the five aggregates. Then one can really see things as they truly are, and do not see things superficially but intrinsically.

3. The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta as a foundation of mindfulness movement in the West

As many would agree, the root of mindfulness movement in the West, is from Buddhist teaching. Siegel (2009, 18) reinforced by describing mindfulness as an elusive and central aspect of the 2500 year-old tradition of Buddhist psychology. The question is how it influenced mindfulness in the West.

In Buddhist philosophy, meditation is generally the practice of samatha (concentration) and vipassanā (observation), and a combination of the two is referred to samādhi. The definition of mindfulness in the West, in the first generation MBIs (FG-MBIs), is referred as “paying attention in a particular way on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally.” Van Gordon (2015, 591) elaborated this definition means there is principally an attentional faculty, and an aptitude that is not necessarily mediated by other meditative processes. As we can see from its definition, mindfulness in the FG-MBIs was generally from derived from samatha, the concentration practices in the Buddhist tradition.

The second generation MBIs (SG-MBIs) advocates an active and discriminative form of awareness (Shonin and Van Gordon 2014, 899), and also teaches mindfulness requires active participation in the here and now, observe and “let-go” of present moment experiences, while concurrently discerning how to respond in an adaptive manner (Van Gordon 2015, 591).  This definition of observation, is the Buddhist practice of vipassanā, which is very important for contemplation.

It is clear that the development of the mindfulness movement in the West has its root from the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta. Kabat-Zinn (2011, 282) later admitted that for obvious reasons, he refrained from using words like “Dharma”, invoking Buddhist thoughts or authority, but he did not hide it and explicitly acknowledged the origin of mindfulness from the very beginning. He referred MBSR as a skillful means to bringing the Dharma into mainstream settings, especially to those facing stress, pain, and illness.

4. Some possible concerns and merits in its development

Although the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta is the main influence on the development of mindfulness movement in the West, many MBIs incorporate other practices too. For instance, MBSR includes teachings of both Theravāda Buddhism and Mahāyāna Buddhism, and yogic traditions including Vedanta (Kabat-Zinn 2011, 289). Another MBI, Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), which was developed by the University of Oxford, similarly, combines mindfulness practices with cognitive therapy (Wu 2019, 32).

In fact, after MBSR, more MBIs like MBCT emerged and combined different practices with the mindfulness practice as taught in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta. Understandably, initially most of them were used in a clinical setting and just aiming at the reduction of pain or stress. However, this will deviate from the original teaching, as it is not the path of  “the only way”.

This may bring problems of “cognitive dissonance” as the MBI has merged different practices from various schools. Bodhi (2011, 19-39) remarked that a system of meditative practice, or an authentic system of spiritual practice is always embed within a conceptual framework that clearly delineates the problem and the ultimate goal that one can attain. By combining different practices together and merely using “mindfulness” to facilitate these activities, “cognitive dissonance” may arise and ultimately lead to greater confusion. For example, in the Vedanta tradition, self is permanent, and concepts of Ātman and Brahman are different than how we interpret the world in the Buddhist philosophy.

The structure in Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta is very systematic, and if one follows the path as the Buddha taught, it can lead to the realization of nibbāna. This realization is through a step-by-step procedure in the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, by ever mindful and constantly dwelling into different meditation objects, one can increase his sensitivity, and shift his awareness from the immediately accessible physical aspects of experience to feelings as more refined and subtle objects of awareness (Anālayo 2003, 15-40). For instance, one starts with contemplating the body in the body, by first drawing his attention and contemplating to bodily postures, to more subtle experience of the anatomy of the body. As sensitivity rises, the practitioner can advance from body to feelings, to mind and eventually contemplating the dharmas.

This path is not introduced in various MBIs, and mindfulness was just used as a broad term to divert various activities. Therefore, without proper guidance, one is not really practising the essence of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta. As Kabat-Zinn (2011, 291) explained, his early definition of mindfulness were operational definitions, and was not meant to give doctrinal statements like in the Buddhist text.

Also, some who receive these MBIs, or mindfulness practices, are not aware that it is derived from Buddhist teachings. This may be unethical, especially to people who did not want to receive Buddhist teachings of “Dharma” when they did not expect a MBI to have religious components in a clinic or hospital  (Van Gordon, Shonin, & Griffiths 2016, 94).

For merits, it is highly probable that more people have heard of mindfulness than the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta. That being said, surely there has been some who first learned mindfulness and went to study the Dharma, as mindfulness has been proved effective in researches done with the MBIs. When one finds it useful, he may go on and practice for greater benefit. This readily available of mindfulness teaching is very beneficial as otherwise one would be hard to learn about mindfulness, or the Dharma, back in the 1980s unless one seek such teachings in a monastery or from books, which one may not receive the message completely. Therefore this development is good as it reduces the pain and stress in the clinical level, and promotes the Dharma in a greater context.

As it is non-religious, the practice of mindfulness can easily enter different institutes. Apart from hospitals and clinics, a lot of schools, prisons, community centres, companies offer mindfulness programs to their members. This greatly benefits those who had no opportunity to learn about the Buddhist teachings, and hopefully when more of us are mindful of our decisions and actions, this world will be a better place. Just like in the days when there were minimal medical services in the prison, or when female had no opportunity to go to school, the introduction of mindfulness is opening a new perspective to those who might desperately needed it.

Kabat-Zinn used MBSR in a clinical setting in medical school, and researches were done. These scientific researches greatly promoted the effectiveness of MBSR and more MBSR clinics were established. There has been more than 24,000 MBSR program graduates and MBSR has been proven to be effective to a wide variety of medical and psychological conditions, including anxiety, cancer, sleep disturbances, stress disorders, etc..

5. Mindfulness movement will be more beneficial with the Buddha-Dharma

In Buddhism, mindfulness is not sufficient, and right mindfulness (samma sati) is required. Right mindfulness is an important part in the Noble Eightfold Path. By practising right mindfulness, the other seven paths will also benefit, and the practitioner will be on the way to the realization of nibbāna. Conversely, there is wrong mindfulness (miccha sati). The distinction between right mindfulness and wrong mindfulness is not morally judged, but the wholesome intentions and positive mental qualities that cause those awareness.  

The four foundations of mindfulness, as taught in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, can similarly, mutually support each other (Anālayo 2003, 15-40). The teachings provide the direct way to liberation, and by following the method, one’s awareness will turn from gross to more subtle. That is why first we should contemplate the body, feelings, consciousness and eventually dharmas, in a progressive manner. As the practice goes on, the practitioner can eventually conglomerate all the meditation objects in one practice.

Even if one practice only mindfulness, it is again insufficient to contemplate or practice. To practice fully, one need to understand the Noble Eightfold Path. Without prior knowledge, one is very hard to practice it accordingly, and may cling to wrong views and cannot attain right mindfulness. The theory of of Buddhist path works in a hierarchy, first with sīla (virtuous conduct), followed by samādhi (concentration) and paññā (wisdom) (Somaratne 2021, 346). Right mindfulness, being part of samādhi, cannot be attained without real virtuous conduct.  

It is truly a merit for mindfulness to blossom in the West, as a skillful means to benefit all the patients suffering, and to the world population at large, to be more mindful than they otherwise would be. It will be such a loss, if due to any concerns or religious reasons, if Kabat-Zinn had not introduced mindfulness to the patients, or written his books about mindfulness and MBSR.

It is always easy to raise concerns than to give constructive suggestions or diligently implement something beneficial skillfully. Given all the issues discussed above, personally I think the mindfulness development in the West has been very successful, and it is somehow irrelevant to judge what has been implemented decades after. Had MBSR not been introduced, many things would not have happened too, as the Doctrine of Dependent Origination suggests, everything depends on each other.

The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta laid a good foundation for mindfulness in the West to flourish. The MBIs have been generally successful and more MBIs were introduced in recent decades, including some to rectify the aforementioned issues. Given the pandemic and global uncertainty economically and politically, perhaps this is one of the time when people on this planet needs mindfulness more than ever. If more people are mindful of their thoughts and actions, this world would become better each day, which is beneficial to all sentient beings.

The MBSR itself, has advanced from paying “bare attention” to “active participation in the here and now, observe and “let-go” of present moment experiences, while concurrently discerning how to respond in an adaptive manner”. This advancement was beneficial at least to novice practitioners who were first introduced to mindfulness practices. After all, there are many ways for us to awaken, and although the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta is the direct way, one may not find the direct way at first, before knowing that mindfulness practices even exist in the world.

Mindfulness practices, or meditation practices at large, direct us to go inward and by contemplating, we can understand the true nature of all phenomena. When we remove the subjective configurations that we perceive, only objective configurations remain. All the illusions, wrong views, ignorance, attachments, clinging to the five aggregates, and hence the “clinging to I” or “clinging to self” will all dissolve. As we eventually notice these are all impermanent and are dukkah in nature, we will be diligently working for something genuinely permanent - the realization of nibbāna.

At any rate, with all the teachings and experiences of the past teachers, we should be of utmost caution during practice and with respect to all who contributed. Bodhi (2011, 36) words are inspirational on this matter:

“I also believe that it is our responsibility ... to remind such experimenters that they have entered a sanctuary deemed sacred by Buddhist ... they should pursue their investigations with humility and gratitude ... They should recognize that ... they are drawing from an ancient well ... and whose waters still retain their potency for those who drink from them today.”

Just as the Buddha spent years to find the Middle Way before liberation, let us hope it will not take too long, if it is not now, for the mindfulness movement to be of the best benefit of all sentient beings and in line with the Dharma!

Chapter III

How can we transform anger into tolerance or patience?

1. What is anger?

When an unpleasant event happened, we may feel disturbed, in fear, turn into anger and try to blame others. Anger is the emotion that usually occurs when we feel offended, or if we feel something unfair happened. Although there is positivity in anger, most of the time the problems that arise will outweigh. We may have encountered anger, and later regretted for such reaction as it became uncontrolled and lead to an even worse outcome. Conversely, tolerance or patience, avoids the shooting of the second arrow when we are emotionally affected by the perceived judgements of the event that happened. There may be a chance to bring an opposite outcome, or at least not worsen the situation.

With anger, we see everyone and everything as enemies, reinforcing specific neuronal patterns that generate feelings of fear and vulnerability (Rinpoche 2007, 122-123). Anger also creates suffering, and only through suffering, we can have an escape (Shantideva, 1979, 45). By not getting angry in situations in which harm comes from all directions, we are practising the purity of patience (Powers 1995, 253). In the following, we will discuss how we can transform anger into tolerance or patience.

We should understand that anger does not solve problems and destroys peace. Consider when you are running out of time and get on a taxi, and the traffic causes delay, you may be angry with the driver. However, after scolding the driver, it does not solve the problem, more often creating more problems when the driver took another way which took even longer because he is frustrated. We often place blame on others for actions that others are not responsible for, or even for situations that perhaps we are the one responsible. Did we choose to take a taxi or the driver? Obviously it is our own decision, as we can choose amongst different transport. In any way, as anger does not solve any problem, we should look for a wiser solution.

Litvak (2010, 295) suggested that there is a tendency for us to trigger attributions to individual blame due to incidental anger. We should understand that habitual responses resulting from anger are only patterns of attachment which leads to suffering. In the above example, it is not a must for us to be angry with the driver for a traffic jam.

We should look into the causes of anger, then there will be cessation of suffering (Shantideva 1979, 48). The causes of anger, in a traffic jam, is our fear of getting late. When we look deeper into the issue, we can also find that we are not the only person suffering. The driver might be worried of delay, being scold, not being paid, or even run into an another vehicle. The same is true when other people scold or insult us, it is their fear that causes these actions, just like we may be angry with the taxi driver. When we understand the fear and the suffering is universal, we can make good use to transform.

2. Transforming anger into tolerance and patience by meditation

Wallace (2007, 88-89) suggested with meditation practices of focused attention, the meditator can effortlessly withdrawn from physical senses, and easily carry it over into daily life, and mental imbalances like anger will only occur infrequently, with a low magnitude and only last for a short period of time. Gyatso (1997, 17) similarly suggested as we reflect on destructive effects of anger as well as the beneficial effects of tolerance and patience, we will be distant towards angry thoughts. Traditionally, Buddhists focus on wholesome thinking, instead of corrupted thinking (MN 19). As we are inclined of our awareness, the more we pay attention to, the more our mind is bent to that thinking. By understanding or experimenting that tolerance or patience bring peace to our mind, and cultivates a better outcome than anger, we can practice to focus on tolerance or patience.

When we are forbearing, the gap between the unpleasant experience and our response can be widened. We can have time, and hence a choice, to investigate the causes of such an event, and work on the factors that contribute to a better result. With the same example of traffic congestion, can we use our mobile to find a faster route and suggest to the driver, or get off nearby and take the trains? When we understand some factors are unchangeable, like the traffic jam; or in other occasions, the personality of each person, or wrongdoings that cannot be undone, the only fruitful and beneficial way is to accept and pay forbearance for the other parties involved, and work for a better outcome.

As we practice, the autonomous response of anger will diminish and a gap of time and choice will emerge, and we can start to escape from our old patterns. Otherwise, as Ellis (1998, 13) suggested, anger may lead to serious emotional and personal distress, such as depression and lack of confidence, which may lead to low frustration tolerance and rage. It is like digging a deeper hole of bigger problems for ourselves and may end up in rumination.

Kabat-Zinn (1994, 35) suggested that meditation cultivates the quality of patience when we are aware of the flow of our own breathing. Similarly, in the Ānāpānasati Sutta (MN 118), mindfulness breathing was discussed, and to practice one has to be mindful of each in-breath and out-breath. By being aware of the length of each breath, and gradually be sensitive of other parts of the body and mind, one is eventually trained, and can on whatever occasion, remain focused on the mind and watch everything mindfully with equanimity, abandons greed and distress, as one remains focused on mental qualities. With these practices, anger can be opted out or transformed easily.

Although our discussion is only to transform anger into tolerance or patience, Kabat-Zinn (1994, 35) also pointed out that patience is also an inner quality that supports meditation practice. Therefore, in order to transform anger into patience, we should practice meditation, which brings more patience, and with more patience, our meditation practice can advance to another level.

We can practice mindfulness to foster our forbearance. Starting with paying attention to small things is easier. If we always have issues with someone who drives our anger, we can try to pay attention and observe our feelings when a conversation is going on. Maybe we will be in fear or get hurt from the negative words, and if we respond with anger, he may be angry and defensive, which results in a bigger problem. When we are mindful, we can express our feelings neutrally without staying in emotions of anger, and a compassionate and meaningful conversation can take place. After all, true friends and companions are interested about what each other think, and be compassionate with. By this practice, we can develop genuine communication and compassion, which are free from any attachments.

Kabat-Zinn (1994, 35) suggested that selfless compassion is based on what Buddhists call “right mindfulness” and “right understanding”. Empty Cloud (1988, 282), the Chinese Zen Master, suggested that we should practice sīla (morality), dhyāna (meditation) and prajñā (wisdom) to wipe out desire, anger and stupidity. Based on both suggestions, it is insufficient just to transform anger to tolerance or patience, just by the practice of mindfulness or meditation. We should also develop the other two qualities according to the threefold training, which are morality and wisdom. By understanding the nature of the world as it truly is, we understand the phenomenon that happens, and this fosters our practice.

3. Anger is a choice, transformation brings better outcome

By the above practices, we turn anger into a choice, which we will hardly choose when we are with wisdom and mindful. Patterns will not fully change in a short period of time, as we are so comfortable with our old patterns. It is important that we start from small things, and gradually move to some bigger things, so it will not go out of order. From time to time we will still have anger, but the magnitude of anger, the period of time we stay in anger, and whether we can transform it into tolerance and patience, will all improve as we focus on the practices.

The bigger things are how we view the world. If we meditate and contemplate that things are impermanent and empty in nature, and understand that anger and the causes of anger are impermanent, or even the person causing or experiencing anger is impermanent, we come to a deeper perspective of understanding. Some meditation practices uses de-constructive techniques and targets on temporary mental phenomena, which was proven effective in breaking cycle of anticipatory anxiety, which is originated from the experience of anger (Conklin 2019, 4-5).

Causality in Buddhism is expressed in the principle of dependent origination (Wallace 2003, 287). Therefore, when we fully understand this principle, when conditions of anger fulfil, anger will emerge, and as we eliminate the necessary conditions like fear, greed or blame, anger will no longer be an autonomous response to the same situation. When we understand that even ourselves are empty in nature, we will work on conditions that cultivate more tolerance and patience, in order to bring peace in our mind, which brings better outcome.

4. As anger is transformed, all our enemies are friends indeed

To conclude, anger can be positively transformed into tolerance or patience, and become a fuel of our enhancement in personality or spiritual growth. When we understand the nature of anger, how it affects us and our surroundings, we should make a wiser choice whether to stay in anger, or transform anger into tolerance or patience. This can be done by practising mindfulness, and with training it can be brought to all aspects of life (Kabat-Zinn 2003, 146).  As we discussed, it can be more skilfully practiced by learning the threefold training according to the Eight Noble Path.  

We should treasure and appreciate the occurrence of anger, for we have a chance to practice because of anger, and transform it into tolerance or patience. From this perspective, all our enemies are our friends, for they ultimately help us to transform and grow into a better person. As Wallace (2003, 88-89) suggested, we should treat our life as a laboratory, and while not everything can be proven in our lifetime, we can find inspiration from both conventional Buddhist theories and modern science. After all, what happened is not the most important, it is how we perceive the event, and how to make good use of it that really matters.

Chapter IV

Dissolution of the subtle energies in the death and dying processes

4.1 As death is inevitable, we should prepare for it

As an implication of the twelve-linked chain of causation, as there is birth, there must be death. The death and dying process is natural and each of us have to experience during our lives, and the actual death experience is very important for Buddhists, as The 14^th Dalai Lama has acknowledged (Rinpoche, Gaffney & Harvey 1992, ix). It is important because during moments of death, our quality of mind will affect our reincarnation. By understanding this process, serious practitioners can have prior preparation for this during his life, and make an extra effort in practices like phowa; mundane person can perhaps have less fear; and their relatives can seek assistance from Tibetan monks, lamas, or spiritual friends to guide them through the process or remind them of the essence of their practice, like taking the bodhisattva and bodhicitta vows together (Rinpoche, Gaffney & Harvey 1992, 107).

This chapter will explain how the subtle energies of human will dissolute during the death and dying process in the Tibetan tradition. This process is also known as the “painful bardo of dying” (Rinpoche, Gaffney & Harvey 1992, 11). The word “bardo”, is bar do in Tibetan, meaning “between two” (Evans-Wentz 2020, J). The painful bardo of dying, is the period between the commencement of dying, and the end of “inner respiration”, which is the time of death (Rinpoche, Gaffney & Harvey 1992, 122). Inner respiration is  a time after the cessation of outer breathing, which is around “the time of a meal”, or  approximately 20 minutes (Rinpoche, Gaffney & Harvey 1992, 257). It is “painful” because the body starts to dissolves when the subtle energy dissipates, and consciousness will eventually leave the body. If one did not prepare for that, there might be a lot of suffering.

4.2 The subtle energies and subtle bodies

According to the Tantric Buddhist tradition, the subtle energy in body is explained by a psycho-physical anatomy system, consisting of nadi, prana, and bindu (Rinpoche, Gaffney & Harvey 1992, 252). 

There are 72,000 nadi-s in the human body, forming an “invisible” network of  dynamic energy channels, which is not seen or recognized by the average person. There are three major nadi-s: Ida Nadi，Pingala Nadi and Sushumna Nadi. These are the left, right and central channel respectively, parallel to the spine, with the Shushumna Nadi lying in the middle. Along the Shushumna Nadi, there are also chakras, which are major energy centres, meaning there is a lot of nadi-s intersecting the same point, often like a knot. Chakra is a  Sanskrit word meaning wheel, so the energy around the centres are similar to the rotation of the wheel. There are four main chakras: crown, throat, heart and navel (Beer 2003, 246).

Prana are the winds, “inner air”, wind-energy or subtle energy that flows within the body. The Buddha has taught that prana is “the vehicle of the mind”, and prana facilitates the movements of the mind (Rinpoche, Gaffney & Harvey 1992, 72). Breath is one kind of prana, but prana means more than just breath as it is just the most subtle material form, so prana is also in other liquids within the body (King, 2019, 70). It is also the vital bond between the physical body and other subtle bodies (Rivere, 1987, 32). Prana can be further described as karmic prana and wisdom prana, which is based on our actions and reactions (Wangyal, 1998, 24-25).

Bindu are “essences” travelling within the nadi-s, a centre of creative energy (Rivere, 1987, 118), or the emplace sexual drop (Mullin, 1996, 59), usually mentioned as the red and white bindu in the Tibetan tradition. The red represents a feminine energy from our mother, whilst the white represents a masculine energy from our father (Thondup, 2006, 67).

4.3 The dissolution process - an overview

In Tibetan tradition, everything is explained by the composition of the five elements: earth, water, fire, wind and space (Evans-Wentz, 2020, 8). The physical body is made up of the five elements too. Kalu Rinpoche (Rinpoche, Gaffney & Harvey 1992, 252) suggested that the mind embodies these five elements. Earth consists of the solid parts of the body, like bone and flesh; water consists of liquid, like blood, lymph, urine; fire is the heat of the body and the metabolism; wind is air and the movement of prana in the body; space is the element that consists of the above four, or specifically the hollows and orifices in the body (Thondup, 2006, 67).

In the death and dying process, or the painful bardo of dying, because of the dissipation of the subtle energies. the physical body will gradually dissolve. This is due to the interdependencies of the body and subtle energies. As a result of the dissolution of subtle energies, the physical or external body will gradually collapse, and the dying person will experience corresponding psychological effects internally, which we will later discuss.

In a healthy person, the prana moves in the network of 72,000 nadi-s, with four major chakras. In which, there are five major types prana or wind-energy: upward-moving; downward-cleansing; heat; all-pervasive; life-upholding (Rinpoche 2010, 53). Each of them support one of the five elements. In the dying process, when the energy of an element dissipates, the chakras or energy centres, will dissolute as the nadi-s start to loosen and become untied. Then the element will be charged with energy, and the impure aspect of the element will start to dissolve (Rinpoche 2010, 53). The energy will then be manifested in experiences as light and colour (Wangyal 1998, 23). The dying person then experiences this dissolution, which is a painful experience without prior practice.

4.4 The dissolution of the four elements and the inner dissolution

According to the Bardo Thödol (Thurman 1993, 61-64), the earth element will first dissolve into the water element. The knots in the channels corresponding to the earth element will loosen and become untied. These are are the intersections of nadi-s in the subtle system. The earth elements mainly corresponds to the knots around the navel (Rinpoche 2010, 54), or the navel chakra. This chakra is associated with the downward-cleansing wind-energy. As the energy flows through, the energy in the dissolving earth element becomes charged. Then the impure aspects in the earth element, will be separated from the pure aspects, which enables the pure to manifest in full. This has external and internal implications to the dying person.

Externally, physical strength will decrease, and the dying may feel the heaviness of the body. He may not be able to stand properly and straight, hold anything in hand, or even hold his head. The cheeks will sink, with dark marks on teeth. He may not be able to open and close his eyes. In general the whole body will be weak and fallible.

The person experiencing this dying process, will feel that he is sinking underground, falling into a deep hole, a mountain pressing on him, or of very heavy weight. He will feel disordered and agitated, and feel drowsy. He may also ask for assistance in pulling up the pillow, or taking away anything that is on the body, like the bed-covers. He may see visions of mirage, as the energy of earth element dissipates into the water element, the water element will manifest in his consciousness. The aggregate of matter in the skanda is gone.

Second, the water element will dissolve into the fire element. The intersecting nadi-s in the centre of the heart, or the heart chakra, which corresponds to the water element, will start to untie (Rinpoche 2010, 55). This chakra is also associated with the life-upholding wind-energy.  Like the previous process of earth element, the energy that corresponds to the water element will become charged and the pure and impure aspects in it will dissipate. Then the pure aspect will manifest.

These subtle channels connect to the kidneys and other organs. As the kidney is out of energy, there will be a need to release the liquid as this organ governs water. Likewise, the dying person will lose control of his bodily fluids. Saliva will leak from his mouth and nose, and there will be eye discharge. The lips will be pain and bloodless, and the tongue and mouth will be dry, with the throat being sticky. There may be steam at the crown as liquid leaves the body. The bodily system will malfunction as the body cannot store energy to sustain the needs of maintaining life.

Internally, the dying person may feel thirsty, as the liquids dry up in the body. The feeling of suffocation, frustration and irritation will arise, and smoke-like illusions may appear. The mind will become nervous and hazy. He may feel being drowned in an ocean, or dropped into a flowing river. The aggregate of sensation dissolves, and sensations will be dwindled down in extremes. He may see visions of smoke, as the water elements fade and fire is taking over to support the consciousness.

Then, the fire element will dissolve into the wind element like previous the previous two dissolutions. The associated area is around the throat, or the throat chakra, which also corresponds to the upward-moving wind-energy.

The fire element is associated with warmth, so the body of the dying will lose its warmth. According to Thondup (2006, 69), if the dying is a yogi and had accumulated merits during his life, by being loving and compassionate, the warmth will start to disperse from his lower body towards the heart. Otherwise, for a selfish person without attaining merits, warmth will disperse from the upper body towards the heart. In both cases, heat will eventually disperse at the heart.  Rinpoche (2010, 56) gave another explanation, by suggesting for the one of merit, heat will gather on the crown and flows towards the toes, and depart the body from the bottom of feet. For the untrained mundane, the flow will be vice versa.

In any way, his eyes, mouth, nose, will all be dried up; and he cannot see; eat, drink or speak; nor smell. Breath will become cold. There may be smoke above the crown as heat leaves the body. There is no energy at the liver, so its linkage with other organs and the blood vessels will stop, and blood vessels are barely open.

Internally, the aggregate of perception diminishes, and the mind is sometimes clear and sometimes in chaos. Memories may not be recalled, and he cannot recognize anyone. Perception of sound and sight is almost impossible. The inner experience will be a dark background, however full of flame and red sparks, as the ability of the wind element to support consciousness takes over the fire element. The aggregate of conception is gone.

At this stage, the wind element dissolves into consciousness. Like previous dissolutions, the  subtle channels below the navel starts to dissipate, and the knots of this secret area will be untied (Rinpoche 2010, 57). The all-pervasive wind-energy will diminish. At this point, as all the other four wind-energy dissolved into the remaining life-upholding wind, this causes the impure aspects to dissipate from the pure aspects, and the pure aspect will enter the “five-coloured life-force channel”.  There will then be no relationship between the subtle wind-energy with the physical breath. As all the knots in the subtle body are untied, prana can flow freely enter the left and right channels, and eventually enter the central channel, which then starts the next dissolution process. Dzogchen practitioners may enable their body to transform to “rainbow body”, with the entire physical body dissolves and transform into light and disappear (Rinpoche, S., Gaffney, P., & Harvey, A. 1992, 171-172).

The lungs will also be isolated from the other organs and breath will be agitated. As the lungs malfunction, the flow of prana into the body will be affected too, as the dying person will be unable to breathe. Blood will be affected without oxygen, and deficient blood will flow into the heart. Eventually, the in-breaths will be shallow and out-breaths will be deep and long. Then blood will enter the “channel of life” which lies on the centre of the heart. After that, there will be three drops of blood collect consecutively, resulting in three long and ultimate exhalations. The dying person will stop breathing, or “outer breathing” in the Tibetan tradition. At this point, he is then clinically dead.

During the dissolution of the wind element, the intellectual aggregate of the dying person is being dissolved, and he becomes unaware of the outer world. If he had attained merits by acts of loving-kindness and compassion, he will experience moments of bliss which is peaceful, otherwise if he has accumulated bad karma, it will be a terrifying experience. The visions will be lamplight-like. The aggregate of volition will be gone.

As the subtle energies have almost dissolved, Rinpoche (2010, 59) suggested that this will be a good time for a lama to be with the dying person. Then, consciousness will dissolve into space, there will be four stages of increasingly subtle level of inner dissolutions or consciousness (Thurman 1993, 42).

First, the stage of “appearance”. The white bindu inherited from our father will descend from the head, via the the central channel, to the heart. There will be an experience of “whiteness” like the moonlight. Our awareness will be clear, and all thoughts of anger and hatred, will cease.

Second, the stage of “increase”. The red bindu from our mother will ascend from the navel to the heart, via the central channel. There will be an experience of “redness” like the sunlight in a cloudless sky. There will be an experience of bliss as thoughts of attachments will be ceased.

Third, the stage of “full attainment”. The red and white bindu meets at the heart, so our two parental essences contain our intrinsic consciousness (Rinpoche, S., Gaffney, P., & Harvey, A. 1992, 258; Thondup 2006, 70). There will be an experience of “blackness”, with the mind free of thought of confusion.

At last, the “mind of clear light of death.” (Rinpoche, S., Gaffney, P., & Harvey, A. 1992, 258). There will be an experience of “clear light of clear pre-dawn sky. This is the most subtle level of consciousness.

As space dissolves into luminosity in this process, this is the time “inner breathing” ends. This is the death of the dying person and it is rare for one to return to life in any way (Thondup 2006, 69). As outer and inner breathing ceases, no more subtle energy persists. The luminous nature then arise, which is the next bardo, with the following exception.

As we have mentioned, this process of inner dissolution can around twenty minutes or “the time of a meal”, but for some practitioners with attainment, this process can last for days, which is called “thukdam”, like the Tibetan master Geshe Jampa Gyatso (Lewis 2000). At death the realized yogi will be awaken and rest in the state of Ground Luminosity, and liberation is attained (Rinpoche, S., Gaffney, P., & Harvey, A. 1992, 270, 278).

4.5 We should prepare well for reincarnation

As we have explored, the dissolution of subtle energies in the death and dying process, is very subtle with great implications, although the masters have already simplified the process in the text. We should understand how the subtle energies affect our health, and prepare for death during our natural bardo of this life. This can be done through Tantric training through proper instructions by the Tibetan masters.

For the mundane, understanding this process is also beneficial for knowing what he may experience during the inevitable death and dying process, and can notice signals for himself, or for taking care of his loved ones facing the process. More importantly, we can have less fear and understand that a peaceful mind can bring a better rebirth, and prepare for a more peaceful death environment as we have a choice.

We should also be aware that, although a peaceful mind is important for next rebirth, the karmic forces which stems from our intentions of actions of this life, play an important role in the quality of our mind, especially during the death and dying process. It greatly affects the subtle energies, which is actually affected by our mind. It is always, as the Buddha taught, the whatever we frequently think upon, become the inclination of our mind (MN 19). As the Tibetan says “rlung sems dbyer med”,  prana and mind are inseparable, therefore we should take care of our thoughts properly.

Conclusion

Many know that the Buddha-Dharma explains suffering, but few knows it also points out the way to cease suffering. Reading this portfolio, I hope you find Buddha-Dharma as a good tool for you to end your current and future sufferings, and share this genuinely with your loved ones. We should know that all sentient beings look for happiness and peace, so it is important what we practice will really bring us genuine happiness.

The Buddha-Dharma is made up of dharmas, or phenomena, so if we mindfully observe all the things around us, the Dharma is everywhere. If we make use of our understanding of the Buddha-Dharma in daily life, it will become wisdom and be beneficial to ourselves and to all sentient beings as we are inseparable from this sahā world.

To conclude, I would like quote the first phrase of the Dhammapada to emphasize the importance of our mind:

“Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind- wrought. If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts suffering follows him  like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox.” (Dhammapada 1)

No matter how the world might change, may we be able to take care of our thoughts properly.

Bibiography

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Bhikkhu, Bodhi. trans. 2009. The Majjhima Nikāya. suttacentral.net. Accessed 12 July 2023.

Bhikkhu, Thanissaro. trans. 2006. The Ānāpānasati Sutta. suttacentral.net. Accessed 12 July 2023.

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